Examining Disadvantages of U.S. High School System Essay

In light of a lot of controversial issues over education matters, different people take different sides and give out individual opinions. There is a common belief that good education would provide a country with a lot of benefits such as more promising economic growth and higher living standards. As the global economic recession is taken more seriously, more and more people are now turning their attention to education in America, the most powerful country in the world, asking whether it will be still up to its name in the future and what kind of improvement to education can make contribution to the social economy. In addition, media also gives data on America’s stagnant education outcome. In a study released in September 2009, what stands out is that U.S. students scored the lowest in Math and Science, with a Math result â€Å"in the bottom quarter of all the countries that participated, including Finland, China and Estonia†(Lattimore). As well, Secretary of Education Arne Duncan claimed that students are going to struggle in the global market competition without intellectual growth. Thus, education issues become outstanding among all the challenges people are going to meet in the recent future. Since secondary education plays a fundamental and transitional role in one’s whole education journey, here are examinations of important factors in the current U.S. public high school system that cause its education quality to decline. Students are not being helped by tests because standards are not rigorous in American high schools. According to Dr. Kristy Vernille, an expert in Mathematics Curriculum and Instruction, American students usually move from grade to grade easily and â€Å"without having to demonstrate competency in any subject matter†, as a result of the loose and vague test standards in America (Vernille 5). Although American students are often asked to take a lot of standardized tests, based on the American Federation of Teachers, the tests results of students usually do not influence their progress through the system. Furthermore, state and commercial tests have lower degree of difficulty and focus on less-advanced problem solving than the international tests; at the same time, international tests include more open-response items (in which students have to show how they solve the problems), whereas â€Å"the United States tests are predominantly multiple-choice items with little intellectual demand associated with determining the answer† (AFT 15). Under these circumstances, U.S. students are not motivated for further study or higher academic accomplishment, resulting in their lower competency than their international peers. However, establishing more rigorous test standards in the U.S. public school system will improve American students’ academic performance. To demonstrate, in China, there is a highly standardized test named â€Å"the National College Entrance Examination†. It also appeared in Time magazine as the â€Å"most pressure packed examination in the world† (Siegel). The Entrance Examination is held for the sake of selecting students for higher education and leadership, and is taken by every Chinese twelfth grader every year. In every state, schools are informed what to teach students and what will probably appear in the exam (Schaack 5). During the preparation for the exam, students have to receive an extremely large amount of information from teachers and finally implement it into the Entrance Exam. Those who perform extraordinarily well are admitted to the nation’s top universities; â€Å"the rest find spots in provincial universities or two- and three-year coll eges† (Siegel). Due to the fact that Chinese students are under such kind of pressure, they are more likely to learn things in order to be competitive and prepared for their future. To a large degree, their academic achievement is related to their educational policies and environment. They don’t have many alternatives in their testing system, which is considered to be fair and standardized. This method can be adopted by American public school system to reduce their test alternatives, in other words, to make a standard in the testing system. With a more clear and rigorous standard, American students are going to have better understanding of what teachers convey and what skills they are supposed to pick up. Thus, academic improvement will subsequently be fostered. Besides the lack of a rigorous testing standard, American schools set up their curriculums based on the education policy approved by law, resulting in negative consequences. Since the No Child Left Behind program was signed into law in 2002, test scores have become the most basic measure of school quality (Ravitch 15). Schools then had to modify the curriculums to enhance their test scores in order not to lose students. How does education make sense when the purpose of testing goes beyond the substance of learning? Diane Ravitch, a historian of education and educational policy analyst, writes this program â€Å"demanded that schools generate higher test scores †¦ It ignored such important studies as history, civics, literature, science, the arts, and geography. Though the law required states to test students eventually in science, the science scores didn’t count on the federal scorecard†(Ravitch 16). She watched her hope for better education fall though she was initially supportive of the so-called education reform. Under this circumstance, coupled with the contemporary, vague, unchallenging test standard, schools are rather unlikely to have curriculums that can help students develop fully or help them attain high scores in those more advanced and comprehensive international tests. To illustrate, data collected by NCES (National Center for Education Statistics) shows that U.S. students perform the worst in areas like Math and Science. Especially in Math, U.S. high school students scored much lower than other countries that participated (Lattimore). Nevertheless, the situation can be changed if the whole school system revises the curriculums for the sake of students’ better development, which is the original intention of education. After that, tests should be based on the curriculums that schools are providing. How is it possible for students to achieve good grades while the test does not at all correspond to the courses they are taking? Although many people believe that the freedom of teaching and the freedom of learning are both significant, experts claim that a well-educated person has a well-furnished mind, â€Å"shaped by reading and thinking about history, science, literature, the arts, and politics†, and is armed with knowledge and skills that help him read, listen and also explain (Ravitch 16). Without basic knowledge and skills, people are unable to think critically, to debate or to question, let alone able to solve problems in tests or in their real lives. The continuous education reforms really expose th e effort that America is always trying to make for its nation. Nonetheless, paying too much attention to testing other than curriculum will only lead to a blow up of its previous efforts. Moreover, school resources, computer technology especially, are not being used effectively by teachers and students, causing a reduction in school productivity. It is now in the midst of the information age when technology use is widely spread. Although the goal of President Bill Clinton, â€Å"a computer in every classroom†, has practically been realized by American public schools and â€Å"the number of computers in U.S. schools has grown dramatically† (Evans 272), a research conducted by Harvard University economist Caroline Hoxby has shown that the productivity (the ratio of student performance to spending) has not increased as expected. Instead, it is declining (Woessmann 73). Originally, schools hope that technology can help students achieve better academic performance, instead of being a distraction for students. Hence, as can be seen in most schools, there are a lot of unwritten rules for students banning them from using electronic devices during class. But many students still behave as usual, making technology a destraction of class environment. For this reason, American schools are confused about whether their students are the beneficiaries or victims of this new age (Evans 272). Since it is a technological time, why not take good advantage of it? There are still many students in developing countries dreaming of this advantage that American students experience. And it definitely cannot be wasted. If students were guided to make good use of school resources, the teaching pace and quality would increase; homework assignments would receive more positive feedback; the testing burden would be lighter. Accordingly, the whole nation’s students would do much better academically. In addition to the hardware and software resources not being used well, adults are not paying enough attention to American students. During a student’s academic journey, adults around him can have a substantial influence on him. In particular, parental involvement has a considerably critical impact on their children’s education experience. If a child’s parents attach great importance to education, then the child would also tend to value their school work (Schaack 10). Again, to demonstrate using Chinese parents as an example, most of the time, they supervise their children’s behavior in school by attending parent-teacher conferences periodically, learning about their grades, discussing school programs and activities with their children, monitoring their homework and so on. They also provide private tutoring, paying private teachers, when their children are not performing as well as others or when they need to pass some specific tests and examinations. Some of the Chinese parents even consider their training to be high enough to teach their children while most American parents seem â€Å"less sure as to how much they could help† with children’s school work (Hunt and Hu 134). As a part of culture, Chinese students are motivated intensely by their parents to succeed in school from the time when they are young (Ho and Willims 136). In comparison, American parents’ involvement in their children’s education differs from area to area. During an interview with a Chinese student in Hillsdale High School, Yixi Wu, who left his country at the age of 15 and immigrated into America, he said that he could tell that American parents provide their children with more freedom when it comes to school matters. They care more about their children’s overall life pattern and everyday skills rather than pay too much attention on their academic achievement (Cannon and Ginsburg 122). However, parental involvement can substantially influence a student’s academic performance. To prove, statistics collected by Professor Esther Ho Sui-Chu from University of British suggest that â€Å"the most important parental-involvement factor at the individual level is Home Discussion. The estimated effect is approximately 12 percent of a standard deviation on both mathematics and reading achievement. This finding implies that an increase of 1 standard deviation in Home Discussion is associated with an increase in achievement of 0.12 of a standard deviation† (Ho and Willims 136). The result of this study really emphasizes the significant influence of parents’ facilitation on children’s academic success. Since cultures in Asian countries like China and Western countries like America are different, children in America manage to have more freedom in school life and academic matters. Consequently, their learning outcome compared to China is relatively lower. But if American parents pay more attention to their children’s school experience, more positive attitudes towards academic behavior will probably be fostered; homework assignment will have better quality; learning outcome will be more outstanding and dropout rates will definitely go down. Besides parents, teachers also have great academic influence on students and their impacts are more direct. Superficially, some people would consider that it was because in some countries teachers were too strict that students did not dare to obey them. This common recognition makes sense to some extent but is not exactly true. Obviously and overall, students are going to attain higher achievement if teachers pay more attention to them and give them corresponding advice on the difficulties they meet at school. As mentioned above, Chinese teachers have their own technique dealing with this issue. Usually, a Chinese teacher is going to ask a student to come to the board to solve a problem with everybody else watching him. If he is not able to have it done, others will try hard to help him deal with it so that no one will extremely lag behind. What’s more, if he still has difficulty figuring it out, teachers will ask him to go to his office after class and provide extra individua l tutoring. â€Å"In Contrast, in America, being called in front of a class and being critiqued by not only your teacher, but also by other peers, could be downright damaging to a student’s psyche† (Schaack 7). In this case, subsequently, students can only ask for help after class during teachers’ office hours, which are rather limited. What if one does not realize where his current position is compared to the others? What if he does not know what he misunderstands right after he gets confused? He will probably accumulate his misunderstanding and eventually lag far behind. Therefore, as the old saying goes â€Å"every coin has two sides†. In exchange for maintaining students’ self-esteem, American education has to lose some of its points in the international competition. Yet if the American schools were to learn from Chinese schools in this aspect, making the classroom environment to be more challenging and teacher-controlled, students are going to be more comp etitive and will achieve much better academically. Admittedly, there are still problems waiting to be fixed in America’s education system even if it has always been receiving a good reputation worldwide. With more rigorous test standards, students would have a better sense of direction in their education journey; with curriculums to be more comprehensive, students would be equipped with better skills for life and career; with more efficient use of resources, students would be able to release much of their pressure and make studying fun; and with the help from parents and teachers, students would probably be more motivated for further study and self-development. Fixing the defects in the U.S. education system and adopting advantages from other countries like China will awaken students’ potential, thereby improving the whole nation’s academic achievement, finally consolidating its title of the most powerful country in the world. Those who suit their actions to the time are wise. Hence, corresponding changes in educ ation turn out to be necessary for America to succeed in its self-progress as well as in the aggressive global competition. Work Cited American Federation of Teachers. â€Å"Setting higher sights: A need for more demanding assessments for U.S. eighth graders.† Washington, DC: American Federation of Teachers. July, 1998. Web. May, 2012. Cannon, J. and H. P. Ginsburg. â€Å"Doing the math: Maternal beliefs about early math ¬ematics versus language learning.† Early Education and Development. 2008. Web. May, 2012. Evans, Dennis L. Taking sides: Clashing views on controversial issues in secondary education. University of California, Irvine. 2002. Print. Ho Sui-Chu, Esther and J. Douglas Willims. â€Å"Effects of Parental Involvement on Eighth-Grade Achievement.† Sociology of Education. (April, 1996):126-141. Web. May, 2012. Hunt, Jessica H. and Bi Ying Hu. â€Å"Theoretical Factors Affecting Parental Roles in Children’s Mathematical Learning in American and Chinese-Born Mothers.† The School Community Journal. 2011. Web. May, 2012. Lattimore, K. â€Å"Students in U.S. Falling Behind i n Math and Science.† 8 September, 2009. Web. May, 2012. Ravitch, Diane. The Death and Life of the Great American School System: How testing and Choice Are Undermining Education. New York. Basic Book, 2010. Print. Schaack, Tara L. Van. â€Å"Comparing U.S. and Chinese Public School Systems.† University of Michigan. n.d. Web. May, 2012. Siegel, Benjemin. â€Å"Stressful Times for Chinese Students.† TIME. 12 June, 2007. Web. May, 2012. Vernille, Kristy. â€Å"Why Are U.S. Mathematics Students Falling Behind Their International Peers?† University of Maryland. n.d. Web. May, 2012. Woessmann, Ludger. â€Å"Why Students in Some Countries Do Better: International evidence on the importance of education policy.† Education Matters. 2001. Web. May, 2012.

Types of Fallacies

FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE 1. Appeal to Force If you suppose that terrorizing your opponent is giving him a reason for believing that you are correct, then you are using a scare tactic and reasoning fallaciously. Example: David: My father owns the department store that gives your newspaper fifteen percent of all its advertising revenue, so I’m sure you won’t want to publish any story of my arrest for spray painting the college. Newspaper editor: Yes, David, I see your point. The story really isn’t newsworthy.David has given the editor a financial reason not to publish, but he has not given a relevant reason why the story is not newsworthy. David’s tactics are scaring the editor, but it’s the editor who commits the scare tactic fallacy, not David. David has merely used a scare tactic. This fallacy’s name emphasizes the cause of the fallacy rather than the error itself. 2. Appeal to Pity You commit the fallacy of appeal to emotions when someoneâ₠¬â„¢s appeal to you to accept their claim is accepted merely because the appeal arouses your feelings of anger, fear, grief, love, outrage, pity, pride, sexuality, sympathy, relief, and so forth.Example of appeal to relief from grief: [The speaker knows he is talking to an aggrieved person whose house is worth much more than $100,000. ] You had a great job and didn’t deserve to lose it. I wish I could help somehow. I do have one idea. Now your family needs financial security even more. You need cash. I can help you. Here is a check for $100,000. Just sign this standard sales agreement, and we can skip the realtors and all the headaches they would create at this critical time in your life.There is nothing wrong with using emotions when you argue, but it’s a mistake to use emotions as the key premises or as tools to downplay relevant information. Regarding the fallacy of  appeal to pity, it is proper to pity people who have had misfortunes, but if as the person’ s history instructor you accept Max’s claim that he earned an A on the history quiz because he broke his wrist while playing in your college’s last basketball game, then you’ve committed the fallacy of  appeal to pity. *Appeal to Snobbery 3. Ad HominemYou commit this fallacy if you make an irrelevant attack on the arguer and suggest that this attack undermines the argument itself. It is a form of the  Genetic Fallacy. Example: What she says about Johannes Kepler’s astronomy of the 1600? s must be just so much garbage. Do you realize she’s only fourteen years old? This attack may undermine the arguer’s credibility as a scientific authority, but it does not undermine her reasoning. That reasoning should stand or fall on the scientific evidence, not on the arguer’s age or anything else about her personally.If the fallacious reasoner points out irrelevant circumstances that the reasoner is in, the fallacy is a circumstantial ad homine m. Tu Quoque  and  Two Wrongs Make a Right  are other types of the ad hominem fallacy. The major difficulty with labeling a piece of reasoning as an ad hominem fallacy is deciding whether the personal attack is relevant. For example, attacks on a person for their actually immoral sexual conduct are irrelevant to the quality of their mathematical reasoning, but they are relevant to arguments promoting the person for a leadership position in the church.Unfortunately, many attacks are not so easy to classify, such as an attack pointing out that the candidate for church leadership, while in the tenth grade, intentionally tripped a fellow student and broke his collar bone. *Ad Hominem Circumstantial Guilt by association is a version of the  ad hominem  fallacy in which a person is said to be guilty of error because of the group he or she associates with. The fallacy occurs when we unfairly try to change the issue to be about the speaker’s circumstances rather than about the speaker’s actual argument. Also called â€Å"Ad Hominem, Circumstantial. Example: Secretary of State Dean Acheson is too soft on communism, as you can see by his inviting so many fuzzy-headed liberals to his White House cocktail parties. Has any evidence been presented here that Acheson’s actions are inappropriate in regards to communism? This sort of reasoning is an example of McCarthyism, the technique of smearing liberal Democrats that was so effectively used by the late Senator Joe McCarthy in the early 1950s. In fact, Acheson was strongly anti-communist and the architect of President Truman’s firm policy of containing Soviet power. 4. Appeal to the PeopleIf you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is correct simply because it’s what most everyone believes, then you’ve committed the fallacy of appeal to the people. Similarly, if you suggest too strongly that someone’s claim or argument is mistaken simply beca use it’s not what most everyone believes, then you’ve also committed the fallacy. Agreement with popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of truth, and deviation from popular opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of error, but if you assume it is and do so with enthusiasm, then you’re guilty of committing this fallacy.It is essentially the same as the fallacies of ad numerum, appeal to the gallery, appeal to the masses, argument from popularity, argumentum ad populum, common practice, mob appeal, past practice, peer pressure, traditional wisdom. The â€Å"too strongly† mentioned above is important in the description of the fallacy because what most everyone believes is, for that reason, somewhat likely to be true, all things considered. However, the fallacy occurs when this degree of support is overestimated. Example: You should turn to channel 6. It’s the most watched channel this year.This is fallacious because of its implicitly ac cepting the questionable premise that the most watched channel this year is, for that reason alone, the best channel for you. If you stress the idea of appealing to a  new  idea of the gallery, masses, mob, peers, people, and so forth, then it is a bandwagon fallacy. *Bandwagon If you suggest that someone’s claim is correct simply because it’s what most everyone is coming to believe, then you’re committing the bandwagon fallacy. Get up here with us on the wagon where the band is playing, and go where we go, and don’t think too much about the reasons.The Latin term for this fallacy of appeal to novelty is Argumentum ad Novitatem. Example: [Advertisement] More and more people are buying sports utility vehicles. Isn’t it time you bought one, too? [You commit the fallacy if you buy the vehicle solely because of this advertisement. ] Like its close cousin, the fallacy of appeal to the people, the bandwagon fallacy needs to be carefully distinguished from properly defending a claim by pointing out that many people have studied the claim and have come to a reasoned conclusion that it is correct.What most everyone believes is likely to be true, all things considered, and if one defends a claim on those grounds, this is not a fallacious inference. What is fallacious is to be swept up by the excitement of a new idea or new fad and to unquestionably give it too high a degree of your belief solely on the grounds of its new popularity, perhaps thinking simply that ‘new is better. ’ The key ingredient that is missing from a bandwagon fallacy is knowledge that an item is popular because of its high quality. Appeal to Past People (â€Å"You too†) 5. Accident We often arrive at a generalization but don’t or can’t list all the exceptions. When we reason with the generalization as if it has no exceptions, we commit the fallacy of accident. This fallacy is sometimes called the â€Å"fallacy of sweeping gene ralization. † Example: People should keep their promises, right? I loaned Dwayne my knife, and he said he’d return it. Now he is refusing to give it back, but I need it right now to slash up my neighbors who disrespected me.People should keep their promises, but there are exceptions to this generaliztion as in this case of the psychopath who wants Dwayne to keep his promise to return the knife. 6. Straw Man You commit the straw man fallacy whenever you attribute an easily refuted position to your opponent, one that the opponent wouldn’t endorse, and then proceed to attack the easily refuted position (the straw man) believing you have undermined the opponent’s actual position. If the misrepresentation is on purpose, then the straw man fallacy is caused by lying.Example (a debate before the city council): Opponent: Because of the killing and suffering of Indians that followed Columbus’s discovery of America, the City of Berkeley should declare that Co lumbus Day will no longer be observed in our city. Speaker: This is ridiculous, fellow members of the city council. It’s not true that everybody who ever came to America from another country somehow oppressed the Indians. I say we should continue to observe Columbus Day, and vote down this resolution that will make the City of Berkeley the laughing stock of the nation.The speaker has twisted what his opponent said; the opponent never said, nor even indirectly suggested, that everybody who ever came to America from another country somehow oppressed the Indians. The critical thinker will respond to the fallacy by saying, â€Å"Let’s get back to the original issue of whether we have a good reason to discontinue observing Columbus Day. † 7. Missing the Point The conclusion that is drawn is irrelevant to the premises; it misses the point. Example: In court, Thompson testifies that the defendant is a honorable person, who wouldn’t harm a flea.The defense attorn ey commits the fallacy by rising to say that Thompson’s testimony shows once again that his client was not near the murder scene. The testimony of Thompson may be relevant to a request for leniency, but it is irrelevant to any claim about the defendant not being near the murder scene. 8. Red Herring A red herring is a smelly fish that would distract even a bloodhound. It is also a digression that leads the reasoner off the track of considering only relevant information. Example: Will the new tax in Senate Bill 47 unfairly hurt business?One of the provisions of the bill is that the tax is higher for large employers (fifty or more employees) as opposed to small employers (six to forty-nine employees). To decide on the fairness of the bill, we must first determine whether employees who work for large employers have better working conditions than employees who work for small employers. Bringing up the issue of working conditions is the red herring. FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION 9. Beg ging the Question A form of  circular reasoning  in which a conclusion is derived from premises that presuppose the conclusion.Normally, the point of good reasoning is to start out at one place and end up somewhere new, namely having reached the goal of increasing the degree of reasonable belief in the conclusion. The point is to make progress, but in cases of begging the question there is no progress. Example: â€Å"Women have rights,† said the Bullfighters Association president. â€Å"But women shouldn’t fight bulls because a bullfighter is and should be a man. † The president is saying basically that women shouldn’t fight bulls because women shouldn’t fight bulls. This reasoning isn’t making any progress.Insofar as the conclusion of a deductively valid argument is â€Å"contained† in the premises from which it is deduced, this containing might seem to be a case of presupposing, and thus any deductively valid argument might seem to be begging the question. It is still an open question among logicians as to why some deductively valid arguments are considered to be begging the question and others are not. Some logicians suggest that, in informal reasoning with a deductively valid argument, if the conclusion is psychologically new insofar as the premises are concerned, then the argument isn’t an example of the fallacy.Other logicians suggest that we need to look instead to surrounding circumstances, not to the psychology of the reasoner, in order to assess the quality of the argument. For example, we need to look to the reasons that the reasoner used to accept the premises. Was the premise justified on the basis of accepting the conclusion? A third group of logicians say that, in deciding whether the fallacy is committed, we need more. We must determine whether any premise that is key to deducing the conclusion is adopted rather blindly or instead is a reasonable assumption made by someone accepting th eir burden of proof.The premise would here be termed reasonable if the arguer could defend it independently of accepting the conclusion that is at issue. 10. Complex Question You commit this fallacy when you frame a question so that some controversial presupposition is made by the wording of the question. Example: [Reporter's question] Mr. President: Are you going to continue your policy of wasting taxpayer’s money on missile defense? The question unfairly presumes the controversial claim that the policy really is a waste of money. The fallacy of complex question is a form of begging the question. 11. False DichotomyA reasoner who unfairly presents too few choices and then implies that a choice must be made among this short menu of choices commits the false dilemma fallacy, as does the person who accepts this faulty reasoning. Example: I want to go to Scotland from London. I overheard McTaggart say there are two roads to Scotland from London: the high road and the low road. I expect the high road would be too risky because it’s through the hills and that means dangerous curves. But it’s raining now, so both roads are probably slippery. I don’t like either choice, but I guess I should take the low road and be safer.This would be fine reasoning is you were limited to only two roads, but you’ve falsely gotten yourself into a dilemma with such reasoning. There are many other ways to get to Scotland. Don’t limit yourself to these two choices. You can take other roads, or go by boat or train or airplane. The fallacy is called the â€Å"False Dichotomy Fallacy† when the unfair menu contains only two choices. Think of the unpleasant choice between the two as being a charging bull. By demanding other choices beyond those on the unfairly limited menu, you thereby â€Å"go between the horns† of the dilemma, and are not gored. 12. Suppressed EvidenceIntentionally failing to use information suspected of being relevant and significant is committing the fallacy of suppressed evidence. This fallacy usually occurs when the information counts against one’s own conclusion. Perhaps the arguer is not mentioning that experts have recently objected to one of his premises. The fallacy is a kind of fallacy of  Selective Attention. Example: Buying the Cray Mac 11 computer for our company was the right thing to do. It meets our company’s needs; it runs the programs we want it to run; it will be delivered quickly; and it costs much less than what we had budgeted.This appears to be a good argument, but you’d change your assessment of the argument if you learned the speaker has intentionally suppressed the relevant evidence that the company’s Cray Mac 11 was purchased from his brother-in-law at a 30 percent higher price than it could have been purchased elsewhere, and if you learned that a recent unbiased analysis of ten comparable computers placed the Cray Mac 11 near the bottom of the list. FALLACIES OF WEAK INDUCTION 13. Appeal to Ignorance The fallacy of appeal to ignorance comes in two forms: (1) Not knowing that a certain statement is true is taken to be a proof that it is false. 2) Not knowing that a statement is false is taken to be a proof that it is true. The fallacy occurs in cases where absence of evidence is not good enough evidence of absence. The fallacy uses an unjustified attempt to shift the burden of proof. The fallacy is also called â€Å"Argument from Ignorance. † Example: Nobody has ever proved to me there’s a God, so I know there is no God. This kind of reasoning is generally fallacious. It would be proper reasoning only if the proof attempts were quite thorough, and it were the case that if God did exist, then there would be a discoverable proof of this.Another common example of the fallacy involves ignorance of a future event: People have been complaining about the danger of Xs ever since they were invented, but thereâ₠¬â„¢s never been any big problem with them, so there’s nothing to worry about. 14. Appeal to Unqualified Authority You appeal to authority if you back up your reasoning by saying that it is supported by what some authority says on the subject. Most reasoning of this kind is not fallacious, and much of our knowledge properly comes from listening to authorities.However, appealing to authority as a reason to believe something  is  fallacious whenever the authority appealed to is not really an authority in this particular subject, when the authority cannot be trusted to tell the truth, when authorities disagree on this subject (except for the occasional lone wolf), when the reasoner misquotes the authority, and so forth. Although spotting a fallacious appeal to authority often requires some background knowledge about the subject or the authority, in brief it can be said that it is fallacious to accept the words of a supposed authority when we should be suspicious of the autho rity’s words.Example: The moon is covered with dust because the president of our neighborhood association said so. This is a fallacious appeal to authority because, although the president is an authority on many neighborhood matters, you are given no reason to believe the president is an authority on the composition of the moon. It would be better to appeal to some astronomer or geologist. A TV commercial that gives you a testimonial from a famous film star who wears a Wilson watch and that suggests you, too, should wear that brand of watch is committing a fallacious appeal to authority.The film star is an authority on how to act, not on which watch is best for you. 15. Hasty Generalization A hasty generalization is a fallacy of  jumping to conclusions  in which the conclusion is a generalization. See also  Biased Statistics. Example: I’ve met two people in Nicaragua so far, and they were both nice to me. So, all people I will meet in Nicaragua will be nice to me . In any hasty generalization the key error is to overestimate the strength of an argument that is based on too small a sample for the implied confidence level or error margin.In this argument about Nicaragua, using the word â€Å"all† in the conclusion implies zero error margin. With zero error margin you’d need to sample every single person in Nicaragua, not just two people. 16. False Cause Improperly concluding that one thing is a cause of another. The Fallacy of Non Causa Pro Causa is another name for this fallacy. Its four principal kinds are the  Post Hoc Fallacy, the Fallacy of  Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc,  the  Regression  Fallacy, and the Fallacy of  Reversing Causation. Example: My psychic adviser says to expect bad things when Mars is aligned with Jupiter. Tomorrow Mars will be aligned with Jupiter.So, if a dog were to bite me tomorrow, it would be because of the alignment of Mars with Jupiter. 17. Slippery Slope Suppose someone claims that a firs t step (in a chain of causes and effects, or a chain of reasoning) will probably lead to a second step that in turn will probably lead to another step and so on until a final step ends in trouble. If the likelihood of the trouble occurring is exaggerated, the slippery slope fallacy is committed. Example: Mom: Those look like bags under your eyes. Are you getting enough sleep? Jeff: I had a test and stayed up late studying. Mom: You didn’t take any drugs, did you?Jeff: Just caffeine in my coffee, like I always do. Mom: Jeff! You know what happens when people take drugs! Pretty soon the caffeine won’t be strong enough. Then you will take something stronger, maybe someone’s diet pill. Then, something even stronger. Eventually, you will be doing cocaine. Then you will be a crack addict! So, don’t drink that coffee. The form of a slippery slope fallacy looks like this: A leads to B. B leads to C. C leads to D. †¦ Z leads to HELL. We don’t want to g o to HELL. So, don’t take that first step A. 18. Weak Analogy The problem is that the items in the analogy are too dissimilar.When reasoning by analogy, the fallacy occurs when the analogy is irrelevant or very weak or when there is a more relevant disanalogy. See also  Faulty Comparison. Example: The book  Investing for Dummies  really helped me understand my finances better. The bookChess for Dummies  was written by the same author, was published by the same press, and costs about the same amount. So, this chess book would probably help me understand my finances, too. FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY 19. Accent The accent fallacy is a fallacy of ambiguity due to the different ways a word is emphasized or accented.Example: A member of Congress is asked by a reporter if she is in favor of the President’s new missile defense system, and she responds, â€Å"I’m in favor of a missile defense system that effectively defends America. † With an emphasis on the wo rd â€Å"favor,† her response is likely to  favor  the President’s missile defense system. With an emphasis, instead, on the words â€Å"effectively defends,† her remark is likely to be  againstthe President’s missile defense system. And by using neither emphasis, she can later claim that her response was on either side of the issue.Aristotle’s version of the fallacy of accent allowed only a shift in which syllable is accented within a word. 20. Amphiboly This is an error due to taking a grammatically ambiguous phrase in two different ways during the reasoning. Example: In a cartoon, two elephants are driving their car down the road in India. They say, â€Å"We’d better not get out here,† as they pass a sign saying: ELEPHANTS PLEASE STAY IN YOUR CAR Upon one interpretation of the grammar, the pronoun â€Å"YOUR† refers to the elephants in the car, but on another it refers to those humans who are driving cars in the vicini ty.Unlike  equivocation, which is due to multiple meanings of a phrase, amphiboly is due to syntactic ambiguity, ambiguity caused by multiple ways of understanding the grammar of the phrase. 21. Equivocation Equivocation is the illegitimate switching of the meaning of a term during the reasoning. Example: Brad is a nobody, but since nobody is perfect, Brad must be perfect, too. The term â€Å"nobody† changes its meaning without warning in the passage. So does the term â€Å"political jokes† in this joke: I don’t approve of political jokes. I’ve seen too many of them get elected. FALLACIES OF GRAMMATICAL ANALOGY 22.Composition The composition fallacy occurs when someone mistakenly assumes that a characteristic of some or all the individuals in a group is also a characteristic of the group itself, the group â€Å"composed† of those members. It is the converse of the  division  fallacy. Example: Each human cell is very lightweight, so a human be ing composed of cells is also very lightweight. 23. Division Merely because a group as a whole has a characteristic, it often doesn’t follow that individuals in the group have that characteristic. If you suppose that it does follow, when it doesn’t, you commit the fallacy of division.It is the converse of the  composition  fallacy. Example: Joshua’s soccer team is the best in the division because it had an undefeated season and shared the division title, so Joshua, who is their goalie, must be the best goalie in the division. 24. Figure of Speech or Parallel-word Construction A fallacy characterized by ambiguities due to the fact that different words in Greek (and in Latin) may have different cases or genders even though the case endings or gender endings are the same. Since this is not widespread in other languages or since it coincides with other fallacies (e. g. quivocation, see above) writers tend to interpret it very broadly. Examples: â€Å"Activists have been labeled as idealists, sadists, anarchists, communists, and just about any name that can come to mind ending in  -ist, like  samok-ist, saba-ist, bad-ist,  and of course, who could forgetdevil-ist? † (The writer has the unsaid argument that any name ending in  -ist  is viewed as â€Å"trouble-makers† by our society. ) An introductory book on philosophy has an appendix entitle â€Å"List of Isms† the proceeds to list the schools of thought in philosophy. (Not all words that end in  -ism  is a school of thought: take for example,  syllogism. )

Alcoholism Is A Serious Issue - 1303 Words

Alcoholism is a chronic and often progressive disease that includes problems controlling your drinking, being preoccupied with alcohol, continuing to use alcohol even when it causes problems, having to drink more to get the same effect (physical dependence), or having withdrawal symptoms when you rapidly decrease or stop drinking. (Clinic, 2014) Alcoholism is a very serious issues and very hard to break. One of society biggest issue is alcoholism. It can cause many problems in a person’s life without the person even knowing. Drinking alcohol is like taking a drug. It is a form of drug abuse, and drug addiction. This is a worldwide problem that many people are involved in. The effects that a person will get are all based on certain†¦show more content†¦Alcoholism also devastates families and loved ones of the addicted individual. Of the approximate 18 million alcoholics in the United States, each one adversely affects at least four other people. Families of alcoholics suffer the same symptoms of the disease as the alcoholic (Kronenwetter, 68). Excessive use of alcohol claims at least 100,000 lives each year, either through accidents or health problems. This is 25 times more loss of life than all illegal drugs combined (Bender, 168). Alcoholism and related problems cost taxpayers an overwhelming $85.8 billion in mortality and reduced productivity (Sora, 193). However, alcohol is still looked upon as a non-threatening dilemma. (Webmaster, 2009) Drinking only a daily base can lead to effects such as: blackouts, where you can’t remember what happened, and insomnia, where you can’t fall asleep. While you are drinking you will be less alert, less aware of your surroundings, lose your muscular coordination, have difficulty walking, have blurred vision, and have slow reaction times. This can lead to accidents, injuries, and death. Also after drinking you may get a hangover the next morning which will include effects like headaches, nausea, thirst, heartburn, dizziness, and fatigue. If you are not careful with the amount of alcohol that you drink you can get some bad side-effects. Once you start to become

Kant s Theory Of Rights - 929 Words

Kantian Justice Kant believed that humans beings are rational beings, worthy of dignity and respect. That the moral action does not consist on the consequences but instead in the intention of why the act was done. Its important to do what is right because it is right, and not for a personal motive. Kant does not believe in self-interest to be part of the moral worth. Self-interest such as wants, desires, and appetites are part of what he calls â€Å"motives of inclination†. He only believes that actions done by motive of duty have a moral worth. The differences between duty and inclination is that inclination involves personal interest, in other words that a person can get benefit by doing the right thing and not because the individual wants to do it. Duty motive involves individuals that do not get any personal benefit from their actions. (M.J Sandel, 2009) Kant’s theory of rights involves a strict logical deduction of the principle of justice from the moral law. The principle of justice must fix human rights that would make any government respect and enforce every individual autonomy. In Kant’s readings, â€Å"autonomy is the universal ethical ideal for all individuals, and its realization requires the political commitment to the legal protection of a set of ahistorical individual rights, most notably the right to external liberty† (Beck, G., 2006). Autonomy requires positively, obedience of the moral law. For Kant, autonomy is the end of every individual. Kant believes thatShow MoreRelatedThe Case Of Evan Motts Assisting His Wife s Euthanasia Essay1644 Words   |  7 PagesI am going to discuss in this essay the case of Evan Motts assisting his wife s euthanasia. I will cover the ethical issues regarding this topic including whether or not Evan should be punished. I will look at the theories of Kantian Ethics and Utilitarianism to justify whether or not Evan s actions were morally right. 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Types Of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus - 1713 Words

Introduction: Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus is a disease that occurs when insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas are damaged or are being destroyed (Mahan, Escott-Stump Raymond, 2012). The gradual destruction of the beta cells of the pancreas usually leads to complete insulin deficiency, which ultimately manifests itself in the following symptoms at clinical onset: â€Å"high blood glucose (hyperglycemia), frequent urination (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and a significant amount of weight loss, dehydration, electrolyte disturbances and ketoacidosis†, requiring dependency of exogenous insulin in order to promote optimal glycemic control in order to prevent further more severe complications; such as, ketoacidosis, microvascular diseases, macrovascular diseases, neuropathy, or worse – Death (Mahan et al., 2012). Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus can result from two existing forms: 1. Immune-mediated diabetes Mellitus, which is characterized by autoimmune destruction of the beta c ells of the pancreas and an idiopathic (unknown cause) commonly seen in ethnic groups of African or Asian descent (Mahan et al., 2012). Of all diagnosed diabetes cases, prevalence of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus accounts for 5%-10%, and although onset may present itself at any age, 70% of cases are diagnosed in young adults (younger than age 30), with a peak in occurring incidences seen mostly in children and adolescents (Mahan et al., 2012). â€Å"In the United States approximately 1 in every 400 to 500Show MoreRelatedApplication Of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus3781 Words   |  16 PagesTable of Contents I. Introduction to Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus a. What it is b. Prevalence and demographics c. Treatment II. Cognitive Outcomes: Mood and Memory a. Memory i. Neural Basis of Memory ii. Cognitive Outcome of TIDM on Memory III. Structural Brain Changes: MRI Studies a. The Hippocampus i. 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Effect of Globalization on GSM London-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Demonstrate an understanding of the Concept of the Organisation and the Environment in which it operates, including determining the competitive advantage for an Organisation. Answer: Introduction The following paper concentrates on the different aspects related to the chosen organization GSM London. Many important things and issues related to this topic will have to be discussed here. The focus will be on the background of the organization, the industry or the sector, in which it operates the different aspects like the organizational operations and responsibilities, will have to be discussed as well. Certain issues that create a problem within the organization have to be identified and given an overview with some probable recommendations to solve it. The business environment of GSM London has to be discussed in the following sections of the paper. As GSM London is an organization related to the academic works, some ethical codes have to be maintained here as well. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss all the valuable things in relating to the organization itself. Company background The full name of this organization is Greenwich school of Management. This organization is located at Greenwich in South-East London (Gsmlondon.ac.uk, 2017). This operates as an independent school of higher education in the country. Another branch of this organization is situated in Greenford in West London. This organization deals with providing thousands of students many business-specific courses in the graduate and post-graduate courses. They also provide the students with many types of training courses and the students who are admitted here are mostly international students. The records say that more than 15000 students take education from this organization (Gsmlondon.ac.uk, 2017). The organization was founded in 1973 and the current CEO is Sir Bob Burgess. Headquarter of this organization is situated in Meridian House in Greenwich. They have worked in partnerships with the Plymouth University from the year 2006 and have delivered validated undergraduate degree awarded by Plymout h (Gsmlondon.ac.uk, 2017). They have a number of expert course advisors in the organization. Business environment The business environment of this organization is quite helpful and they have various courses to offer to their students (Brown and Carasso 2013). This organization serves the education sector in the country and one of the most reputed institutions as well. They offer financial advice from their expert finance advisors who advise the students about how they can manage their headaches about the funding of the fees for their courses. The organization looks to provide support to the students and they desire core academic skills for better future of the students. They provide a proper academic environment for the students that add to the success of the students on the long run (Brown and Carasso 2013) They also focus on the students individually to help them overcome their troubles in the understanding the courses. All of these plans and programs are looked after by the senior managers of the organization. They provide a simple business environment in the industry that helps the students to gather their knowledge properly (Brown and Carasso 2013) The business environment is quite competitive but the strategies they have undertaken lead them to gain the competitive advantage over their rival organizations (Botha, Kourie and Snyman 2014). One of their rivals in the industry is the University of Greenwich. The management and leadership styles being followed here are quite motivating. The management motivates the employees or the teachers and trainers greatly so that they give their best efforts in trying to solve the problems of the students. This training in GSM London helps them to get best jobs in the business industry with great placements (Mourshed, Farrell and Barton 2012). Various types of business environments are present that leaves an impact on the proceedings of the certain business industries. These are considered as the economic environment, political environment, social environment, legal environment and the technological environment (Pulver 2012). Economic environment The economic environment of the institution GSM London is quite stable. The institution helps in providing the students with scholarships and much other assistance (Wild, Wild and Han 2014). The institution helps the students get educational loans especially to the students who are from UK and other EU countries. The economic and fiscal policies of the government have long lasting impacts on their countries. The good training services and good placements in the industry help in the economic growth of the country as well as increasing the GDP of United Kingdom. It also helps in the foreign multinational companies being interested in investing in this country. Political environment The political environment of the United Kingdom is quite stable with the democratic environment (Wild, Wild and Han 2014). The attitude or approach of the government towards the educational institutions is quite motivating as the government is interested to create more job opportunities in the country by providing good education. The management of the organization is quite susceptible to the immediate changes in the government policies. Social environment The different social factors are responsible in determining the social environment of the business organizations. The social demographics of the area have a great impact on the success of the organization (Wild, Wild and Han 2014). The quality of life in UK is quite impressive with a good economic growth. This is why the families are keen to send their children to institutions where they can get the best education. The innovative strategies to incur knowledge into the minds of the students help them to get a strong hold in the industry. Their academic track record is quite good so they are very much in compliance with the social conditions. The literacy rates are quite high in the urban areas in UK so this again works as a positive criterion. The traditions in their good record of academic performance among the British give them an advantage over others (Wild, Wild and Han 2014). Legal environment The different laws related passed in the British parliament are obeyed by GSM London properly like the Equality Act 2010, Education Act 1996 and others. They do not discriminate any student due to their skin color or their caste. Equality id preserved in this organization all through (Wild, Wild and Han 2014). Technological environment Technology is an integral part of the modern day business. The GSM London has adopted the various technological tools to innovate new strategies of training the students and apply them in the practical field. This enhances the students skills (Wild, Wild and Han 2014). Effect of globalization on GSM London Globalization has a huge impact on the education sector all over the world. Due to the use of technology everywhere, GSM London has gained benefits. It has been able to make its strategy according to the global standards and being compliant to the industry (Rumford and Buhari 2012). They can post advertisements online through the use of social media and thus be able to attract more students from different countries. Their placement and track record have impressed the students. This attracts them to come to UK and study in GSM London by getting scholarships (Rumford and Buhari 2012). Consumer demand and its effects on business Consumer demand is a very important part in making business decisions. The consumers (in this case, the students) tend to find the best institutions that will cater to their needs and deliver their goals for their career (Gowrisankaran and Rysman 2012). They also find the kind of institutions that they can afford economically and get the best placements in the business industry. All these needs and requirements are fulfilled by GSM London. This is why they acquire a top spot in the business related education sector for their scholarships and well-planned training systems (Edwards, Sieminski and Zeldin 2014). Entrepreneurship, Creativity and Innovation GSM London is one of the most important institutions on UK who have led their paths for entrepreneurship in the education industry (Fayolle 2013). They have opted for expanding their business all over the world and get international students. They have the willingness to develop further and expand their services more. This way they are one of the pioneering institutions to adapt entrepreneurship. The strategic innovation like providing scholarships and financial advisors for their students has catered to gain competitive advantage through creative thinking power. The innovative training programs and using technology for better training methods have added to their success story (Khurshid and Ansari 2012). The creativity factor is well encouraged by the management of GSM London. Innovation process in GSM London is quite impressive. They use the different technological tools in order to attract their students (Lytton 2012). They also monitor the educational performance of the students by using technology. The different methods they use to improve the performance and thus achieving the faith of their students. Conclusion The paper can be concluded by saying that GSM London has provided bright career prospects to their students. The students who take part in the education programs are benefitted in a huge way by getting good jobs. They also provide scholarships that come as financial aid for the students. The students get quality training from the well qualified trainers and this helps them to enhance their skills. Good jobs earn them good salaries and thus make way for the economic growth of the country. Thus the entire country is benefitted by functionalist theory of sociology. People who get train them have a great amount of technological knowledge and they cater to the development of the organization. The entrepreneurship and innovative thinking leads them to become one of the leading organizations in UK education sector. References Botha, A., Kourie, D. and Snyman, R., 2014.Coping with continuous change in the business environment: Knowledge management and knowledge management technology. Elsevier. Brown, R. and Carasso, H., 2013.Everything for sale?: the marketisation of UK higher education. Routledge. Edwards, R., Sieminski, S. and Zeldin, D. eds., 2014.Adult learners, education and training(Vol. 2). Routledge. Fayolle, A., 2013. Personal views on the future of entrepreneurship education.Entrepreneurship Regional Development,25(7-8), pp.692-701. Gowrisankaran, G. and Rysman, M., 2012. Dynamics of consumer demand for new durable goods.Journal of political Economy,120(6), pp.1173-1219. Gsmlondon.ac.uk. (2017).GSM London. [online] Available at: https://www.gsmlondon.ac.uk/ [Accessed 2 Aug. 2017]. Khurshid, F. and Ansari, U., 2012. Effects of innovative teaching strategies on students performance.Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research,12(10-E). Lytton, H., 2012.Creativity and education. Routledge. Mourshed, M., Farrell, D. and Barton, D., 2012. Education to employment: Designing a system that works.McKinsey Center for Government,18, pp.1-7. Pulver, S., 2012. Business and the Environment. Rumford, C. and Buhari, D., 2012.European Union. John Wiley Sons, Ltd. Wild, J.J., Wild, K.L. and Han, J.C., 2014.International business. Pearson Education Limited

Whooping Chough Essays - Pertussis, Burkholderiales, RTT

Whooping Chough Whooping cough which is also known as Pertussis is caused by infection by the Bordetella Pertussis bacteria. It is a highly contagious bacterial disease that affects the respiratory system and produces spasms of coughing that usually end in a high-pitched whooping sound. In this report I will describe how Pertussis is spread, contracted, what treatments are available for it and the prognosis for the patient. I will also tell you about the many symptoms of the disease. Etiology: Pertussis is caused by Bordetella Pertussis the bacteria invades the nose and throat and then the trachea followed by the bronchial tubes of the lungs. People usually contract the bacteria through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Then people inhale or come in contact with the infected saliva. People who have been immunized in the past may still develop infection but it is usually atypical or very mild that is another cause of whooping cough. The incubation period is usually about 7 days. Morphology & Diagnosis: Pertussis is a round shaped gram positive bacteria. Some of the symptoms of Pertussis include runny nose, coughing that may be dry or may produce sputum. Along with a fever usually 102F or lower. Severe coughing attacks that ends in a high-pitched crowing sound when inhaling or it will end in a high-pitched "whoop". The coughing spells may end in a momentary loss of consciousness and or vomiting. It also results in difficulty at breathing. It also can cause some people to have diarrhea. When some small infants have long spells of coughing they usually begin to cry which causes them to choke on there own tears. Pertussis can be treated by DtaP which is a vaccine that protects children against the disease. During epidemics, health care providers or others at risk may be advised to receive a booster dose of the vaccine. The immunization is not 100 percent effective and has slowly becomes less effective over the past few years. Some tests that can be performed to tell if a person has contracted are to take a culture of the secretions from the nose and mouth and throat. A complete blood count or CBC which measures the number of red blood cells and white blood cells in the blood. If there is an with an elevated number of white blood cell count characterized by large numbers of lymphocytes. There are also serologic tests for Pertussis. Treatment: The Treatments include Erythromycin which is an antibiotic that is administered and may shorten the duration of the symptoms. Infants under 18 months of age require constant supervision because breathing may temporarily stop during spells of sever coughing. Infants with severe cases should be hospitalized. An oxygen tent with high humidity may be used. Intravenous fluid may be given if coughing spells are severe enough to prevent enough fluid intake by mouth. Sedatives may also be prescribed for young children. Cough suppressants are usually not helpful and should not be used. Prognosis: The prognosis for a person who leaves Pertussis untreated in infants has a poor outcome. The disease has a one percent to 2 percent death rate. Death may occur from lack of oxygen to the brain and bronchopneumonia. Some other complications that may occur are slowed or stopped breathing, nose bleeds, pneumonia, convulsions which are caused by a lack of oxygen and can cause permanent brain damage. Some of the more serious effects are anoxic encephalopathy, cerebral hemorrhage, seizures and developmental retardation. Miscellaneous: In Ethiopia rural doctors give a vaccination for Pertussis to people in street markets in an effort to increase the immunity rate of their country. Pertussis has becomes an epidemic about every 2-4 years. It usually affects non-immunized children with a history of contact to the bacteria the most. Personal Reflection: Matts reflection: When I think of Whooping cough I don't think of it as a major epidemic. The reason why I believe this is because there is not much information on the subject and I had a very difficult time finding pictures of the bacteria and its effects. I suppose that if 10 out of every 100,000 people are infected with it then it must not be a very large problem. The disease doesn't to seem to have very sever side effects if it is left untreated. I am almost certain that in a few more years Whooping cough will disappear. Roberts reflection: My opinion is a little different than Matts but in some ways I feel the same. First off I do agree that in this